About C
C is a general-purpose programming language. It was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie and remains very widely used and influential. By design, C's features cleanly reflect the capabilities of the targeted CPUs. It has found lasting use in operating systems code (especially in kernels ), device drivers, and protocol stacks, but its use in application software has been decrea. C is a general-purpose programming language. It was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie and remains very widely used and influential. By design, C's features cleanly reflect the capabilities of the targeted CPUs. It has found lasting use in operating systems code (especially in kernels ), device drivers, and protocol stacks, but its use in application software has been decreasing.C is commonly used on computer architectures that range from the largest supercomputers to the smallest microcontrollers and embedded systems.A successor to the programming language B, C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to construct utilities running on Unix. It was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating system.During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity. It has become one of the most widely used programming languages, with C compilers available for practically all modern computer architectures and operating systems. The book The C Programming Language, co-authored by the original language designer, served for many years as the de facto standard for the language. C has been standardized since 1989 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and, subsequently, jointly by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).C is an imperative procedural language, supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, with a static type system. It was designed to be compiled to provide low-level access to memory and language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variet.
C is an , procedural language in thetradition.It has a static . In C, allis contained within(also called "functions", though not in the sense of ).are passed by value, althoughare passed as , i.e. the address of the first item in the array. Pass-by-reference is simu. C is an , procedural language in thetradition.It has a static . In C, allis contained within(also called "functions", though not in the sense of ).are passed by value, althoughare passed as , i.e. the address of the first item in the array. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointers to the thing being referenced. C program source text iscode. terminate , whileare used to group statements into . The C language also exhibits the following characteristics: • The language has a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set ofprimitives: , , , , and . User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of .• It has a large number of arithmetic, , and logic operators: +,+=,++,&,||, etc.• More than one may be performed in a single statement.• Functions:• Data typing is , but ; all data has a type, but are possible.• User-defined () and compound types are possible.
Early developmentsThe origin of C is closely tied to the development of theoperating system, originally implemented inon abyand , incorporating several ideas from colleagues.Eventually, they decided to port the operating system to a Early developmentsThe origin of C is closely tied to the development of theoperating system, originally implemented inon abyand , incorporating several ideas from colleagues.Eventually, they decided to port the operating system to a . The original PDP-11 version of Unix was also developed in assembly language.BThompson wanted a programming language for developing utilities for the new platform. He first tried writing acompiler, but he soon gave up the idea and instead created a cut-down version of the recently developedcalled . The official description of BCPL was not available at the time,and Thompson modified the syntax to be less 'wordy' and similar to a simplifiedknown as SMALGOL.He called the result ,describing it as "BCPL semantics with a lot of SMALGOL syntax".Like BCPL, B had acompiler to facilitate porting to new machines.Ultimately, few utilities were written in B because it was too slow and could not take advantage of PDP-11 features such as addressability. New B and first C release.
C has a specified by the C standard.Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance during the preprocessing phase. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line. Comments delimited by /* and */ do not nest, and these sequences of characters a. C has aspecified by the C standard.Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance during the preprocessing phase. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line. Comments delimited by /* and */ do not nest, and these sequences of characters are not interpreted as comment delimiters if they appear inside or character literals.C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and . Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures. As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as aof the evaluation,andnew values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords.is supported by if .[else] conditional execution and by do .while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted.
The "hello, world" example that appeared in the first edition ofhas become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks. The program prints "hello, world" to the , which is usually a terminal or screen display. The "hello, world" example that appeared in the first edition ofhas become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks. The program prints "hello, world" to the , which is usually a terminal or screen display. The original version was:A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is:The first line of the program contains a , indicated by #include. This causes the compiler to replace that line of code with the entire text of the header file, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf and scanf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that the header file can be located using a search strategy that prefers headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the same name (as opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific header files). The second line indicates that a function named main is being defined. Thefunction serves a special purpose in C programs; thecall.
Thein C isand , which makes it similar to the type system ofdescendants such as . There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, , and enumerated types (enum).Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters.C99 added a .There are al. Thein C isand , which makes it similar to the type system ofdescendants such as . There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, , and enumerated types (enum).Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters.C99 added a .There are also derived types including , ,(), and (union). C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary.The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way. Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for . (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: "".)C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results.For example, a comparison of si.
One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three principal ways to allocate memory for objects:• : space for the object is provided in the binary. One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three principal ways to allocate memory for objects:• : space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.• : temporary objects can be stored on the , and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited.• : blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the ; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function realloc or free.These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.
The C programming language usesas its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file.Each library typically has a , which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these fu. The C programming language usesas its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file.Each library typically has a , which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. For a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires (e.g., -lm, shorthand for "link the math library").The most common C library is the , which is specified by theandstandards and comes with every C implementation (implementations which target limited environments such as may provide only a subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values.Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities. Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted forandsystems, especially functions which provide an interface to the . These functions are detailed in various standards such asand the . Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries availabl.
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